International Journal Of Project Management â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The International Journal Of Project Management? Answer: Introducation Project management is the approach which involves the applications of varied tools, skills and knowledge which are needed to attain project objective (Leimbach, and Goodall, 2017). In todays scenario this technique has gained greater importance as it allows managers to complete their task within the given specified time limit. In the present report discussion will be carried out on different concepts such as project, risk and quality management. In this regard, the report will showcase the implications of modern developments in the future of project management. Furthermore, at the end recommendations will be suggested to ensure the success of project. Changing perspective about project management The concept project management has been into the practice for more than 50 years. Thus, it has evolved very much till this time. In this regard, many studies have been done by researchers upon project management and hence have found out several perspectives about the concept. Herein, the study conducted by Kerzner state that earlier project management was seen as the type of career path. This mean that previously project manager see this concept as another designation in their career path (Kerzner, 2010). However, now days the thing has completely change as now project management has gained strategic importance. At present, manager uses this technique for the purpose to complete their task within the given specified time limit and hence gain core competency. In addition to this, managers view about project management has also changed in relation to the training. Earlier project managers used to receive general organizational behavior training which assist them in their task completion (Carvalho and Junior, 2015). However, now project managers are given number of specialized training which is related to the topics of managing diversity, virtual team and relationship management etc. This indicates that at present project management has become internal and the most important part of any business. This is because, it is with the help of given method only, manager will be able to complete its work within particular time frame and thus earn high profit and sales. Furthermore, previously companies used to see all their undertaken projects alike. However, this thing has changed and thus projects are segregated in the form of complex and non complex category. This type of segregation has improved the work of project manager. It has allowed them t o make the segregation of their work on project importance basis. Significance of managing risk in project management Risk management is being considered as the systematic process of assessing all certain and uncertain factors which might give threat to the organizations capital. Moreover, the quote entailed by Rajan gives more clarification about the risk management concept. Rajan Quote that Taking no Risk is the best form of Risk management (Quotes About Risk Management, 2017). In accordance with the given context, Asadi has entailed in his study that risk is the undividable part of project. This means that all type of project whether it is complex and non complex possesses some type of risks. In respect to this, some type of risk assessed which occurs in front of project managers while doing their work (Asadi, 2015). It consists of scope risk, scheduling risk, technology risk and resource risk. It is very necessary for the project managers that they should take action against all these given risks. This is because if not taken then it may affect the quality of the completed project. The impact of the same will be seen on firms profitability. Below are the points which depicts about importance of managing risk in project management. Help in the management of scope creep: As Kerzner has also entails in his study that scope creep is the most critical and impactful risk of any project. But, action against such type of risk could be taken if prior plans will be prepared by making use of different risk mitigation method (Kerzner, 2017). This thing will allow manager with regard to deliver the high quality services to their client. Allows timely project delivery: The main aim of project manager is to deliver his work to client in the specified time limit. But, on doing this project manager faces many hurdles due to different unidentified risks. Thus, by making use of risk management approach managers can assess all type of risks which could affect their productivity. It is through this way only project managers can complete their work on time (McMahon, 2016). Risk management strategies and quality management Risk and quality management are being regarded as another most important part of any project. This is because these are the two main factors which ensure the success of project. In accordance with the given context, it can be said that managers will be able to deliver high quality project to their clients if they have taken significant measures for removing different hurdles which occurs in front of them. Therefore, with an aim to do the respective task they have to take assistance from number of risk management tactics and these are all depicted in below: Planning: It is being regarded as one of the most important risk management tactic. This approach entail that managers should prepare plan in relation to each and every type of risks which may occur in front of them. Moreover, the approach also entail that the managers should segregate their identified risk on the bases of their impact fullness upon project. For instance, the risk which is highly impactful should be put in red category and thus should be mitigating first (Nicholas and Steyn, 2017). If work will be carried out through this order then assurance of giving high quality work can be ensured. Monitor: The risk like scope creep requires continuous monitoring. This is because if it is not done then it will become very difficult for the project managers with respect to give their services within specified time limit in an effectual way. Modern developments in project management and its implication in future There are number of developments happening in the field of project management. These developments will not only enhance the effectiveness of future project but also assist in completing the number of projects within particular time frame (Martinelli and Milosevic, 2016). In this context, detailed information about modern developments in project management and their implication in future projects are depicted in below: Developing an effective procedural documentation: It is being regarded as one of the most effective modern development which has happened in the field of project management. This approach entails that before working on any project managers should prepare some set procedure and should make documentation of the same. With the help of procedural documents managers can gain number of benefits such as unity among project team, reduces paperwork, record for future reference and conflict minimization etc. These all benefits will assist project manager in the task of managing their complex and non-traditional projects in an effectual manner. In this context, it is examined that complex projects have the features like uncertain scope and requirements etc. Thus, by making use of procedural documentation managers can prepare prior plans in relation to the same (Padalkar and Gopinath, 2016). Thus, it is by complying with the given type of activity only effectiveness of the projects taken in futu re can be enhanced. Continuous improvement: It is being considered as one of the most popular technique of quality management and thus now it is gaining importance in project management area also. This method depict that making improvement in particular task is not the one time effort but an ongoing activity. This approach helps firm in maintaining their competitiveness in a highly competitive environment. In future it has positive implication because with the help of this project manager can deal with the risk like scope creep. It is the type of risk wherein the client present its additional requirement at the stage in where project is about to complete or ready for delivery. By making use of continuous improvement, project manager can assess the area where additional requirement from client can be added. This lead to the client satisfaction and thus resulted in the form of increased profits and sales. Competency models: This model is the replacement of project manager job description. By making use of this model number of skills can be identified which are needed in order to enhance the performance of project manager at present as well as in future (Portny, 2017). Herein, with the help of this technique information about soft and hard skills needed among project manager can be assessed (Ravindranath, 2016). Leadership, communication, conflict management and creativity are some type of soft skills. On making use of these skills project managers can deal with the number of problems which tend to occur in front of them. Thus, it is through this way only managers can enhance their efficiency of delivering high quality services to client in future. Capacity planning: This approach gives information to company about the capacity which they hold in relation to new project. In other words, with the help of capacity planning project manager can identify that whether new project work can be accomplished with existing resources or not. This method assists project managers in terms of making viable decision about their work in future in an effectual way. However, it can be evaluated that these all modern developments have limitation of time consumption. This is due to the fact that in order to prepare all types of plans project managers will require sufficient time which they always lack (Pinto and Winch, 2016). But, still use of these developments will have positive implication on future project work. Actions to be taken to ensure the success of project In order to ensure the success of project in future following actions assessed which can be used by project managers. Managing conflict at initial phase: It has been seen that while doing any big task managers go through with different type of conflicts which arises due to many issues. Thus, in order to manage the same managers can use conflict management techniques and thus can take action against all the aspects which may affect the final result of project (Zwikael, 2016). To make use of risk management: Number of risk occurs at different stage of project. Thus, in order to ensure success of project it is required by managers that they should take help from risk management techniques. This will improve quality of final project also. Preventive measures for ensuring viability and completion of project It is suggested to the managers that they should make use of technique such as CPM (Critical Path Method). This approach showcase shortest path for completing project. Thus, with the help of this project managers can complete their work in specified time frame (Nicholas and Steyn, 2017). To check the viability of project, managers can take assistance from varied experts and thus can make a decision of working on particular project or not. Conclusion From the whole report it can be summarized that the future of project management is safe due to the presence of different developments that are happening in respective field. Moreover, in future project managers have a base of taking viable and effective decision about their taken work. Thus, it will lead business in profit making direction. References Asadi, Z., (2015). An investigation of risk management strategies in projects. Marketing and Branding Research, pp. 89-100. Carvalho, M. M. D., and Junior, R. R (2015). Impact of risk management on project performance: the importance of soft skills. International Journal of Production Research, 53(2), pp. 321-340. Kerzner, H. (2017).Project management metrics, KPIs, and dashboards: a guide to measuring and monitoring project performance. John Wiley Sons. Kerzner, H., (2010). The Future of Project Management. International Institute of Learning, pp. 1135-1165. Leimbach, T., Goodall, J. B. (2017). The relation between project management education and newer streams in project management research. InFuture of Project Management, pp. 65-74. Martinelli, R. J., Milosevic, D. Z. (2016).Project management toolbox: tools and techniques for the practicing project manager. John Wiley Sons. McMahon, P. E. (2016).Virtual project management: software solutions for today and the future. CRC Press. Nicholas, J. M., Steyn, H. (2017).Project management for engineering, business and technology. Taylor Francis. Padalkar, M., Gopinath, S. (2016). Six decades of project management research: Thematic trends and future opportunities.International Journal of Project Management,34(7), 1305-1321. Pinto, J. K., Winch, G. (2016). The unsettling of settled science: The past and future of the management of projects.International Journal of Project Management,34(2), 237-245. Portny, S. E. (2017).Project management for dummies. John Wiley Sons. Ravindranath, S. (2016). Soft Skills in Project Management: a Review. The IUP Journal of Soft Skills, pp. 1-25. Zwikael, O. (2016). International journal of project management special issue on project benefit management. Quotes About Risk Management. (2017). [Online]. Available through: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/risk-management. [Accessed on 19th September 2017].

Impact of the Social E-commerce Variables on Customers Shopping

Question: Discuss about theImpact of the Social E-commerce Variables on Customers Shopping. Answer: Zheng, X., Zhu, S., Lin, Z. (2013). Capturing the essence of word-of-mouth for social commerce: Assessing the quality of online e-commerce reviews by a semi-supervised approach.Decision Support Systems,56, 211-222. Introduction The present article concentrates on the recent progressions in the area of the information and the communication technologies as well as emergence of the Web 2.0 technologies that have brought about new advancements in the area of e-commerce. The current study focuses on social commerce that has become a new improvement in e-commerce essentially caused by the utilization of the social media to empower targeted customers to interact in a better way on the internet. The current paper also elucidates in detail the latest advancements in the information and communication technology together with the emergence of the Web 2.0 as well as the popularity of the social media have directed the way towards development of diverse new social media platforms. The platforms are said to have facilitated the overall use of the social commerce. The current study also sheds light on the existent academic body of literature and theoretical structure on social commerce, social commerce constructs, social commerce adoption model, intention to purchase and trust of the users in social networks Literature Review Social Commerce: As rightly put forward by Huang Benyoucef (2013), the academic literature on social commerce facilitates in understanding an advanced new stream as well as sub set of specific-commerce that can enable target consumers to acquire consent. The social commerce can in the process help the vendors to reach diverse markets by integration of different social interactions among consumers. Therefore, the social commerce can be regarded as a new development in the field of e-commerce along with the social networking sites as well as social media that can enable target consumers to become active content generator on the virtual space. As mentioned by Hughes Beukes (2012), a significant tool is the social media that can help in the process of differentiation of e-commerce from social commerce. Again, the social commerce also involves the use of the Web 2.0 applications that can uphold the process of interaction among diverse people essentially in an online context in which the contribution of diverse users can facilitate the process of acquirement of services as well as products. Qu et al., (2015) opine that the attractiveness of different social media sites is the primary components that can be used for the purpose of development of the field of the social commerce. The advanced social media technologies have essentially become the social tools as well as online platforms that can help in the process of development of social media. As per reports on the social commerce statistics, the objective of the social networking can help in the process of creation of online communities in which the members of the communities can share and at the same time seek common interests, actions, experiences as well as information regarding different products as well as services that essentially forms the critical social media stratagem (Li et al., 2013). Social Commerce Constructs: As rightly mentioned by Zheng et al., (2013), different types of experience of consumers in a particular online environment is distinct as the target consumers carry out interactions with different individuals. There are several social media scientists who are of the view that social media as well as emergence of different social media platforms namely, the forums as well as communities, ratings, reviews as well as recommendations have the sociability. Furthermore, the association between different e-vendors and consumers can be considered to be personal. The social media platforms are essentially the social commerce constructs that the current study will study. As mentioned by Wang et al., (2016), social commerce constructs (SCC) can be regarded as the social media platforms that have essentially emerged out of the technology Web 2.0 that in turn can empower the consumers for generation of the content and sharing of experiences. This social commerce constructs can make use of import ant information, provide important advice and at the same time share experiences in the social platforms offering a source for different online societal support. As rightly put forward by Wen et al., (2014), the ratings and reviews can be considered as one of the most significant constructs that can shape the overall social commerce. However, critical reviews generated by a third party can lessen the needs of the consumers as regards the information of the advertisement. As a result, reviews as well as ratings can create content and at the same time share experience to generate effectual information for target consumers. However, the engagement of different consumers can help in co-creation as well as generation of content that in turn can help in the social commerce constructs (Digital Intelligence Today, 2016). Trusts As rightly put forward by Chiu et al., (2014), trust can be regarded as a primary issue in economic as well as social transaction in essentially an online context in which there remains lots of improbability. In case of e-commerce, trust can be regarded to be very important where risks are very high. Again, the adoption process in e-commerce also requires maintenance of high level of trusts. The progressions in the social technologies as well as interconnectivities among different individuals on the internet platform requires maintenance of high levels of trust as well as security that shall permit two different parties to lessen the perceived risks of different transactions. Empirical evidences and prior researches reflect the fact that individuals prefer to diminish the level of social uncertainty. However, it is also disputed that in case if the websites of the e-commerce elucidates products or else the services properly, the target consumers shall trust the specific websites more . Nevertheless, this process can be facilitated by the application of different advanced social technologies that includes diverse customer reviews, pertinent information as well as experience of other individuals belonging to different forums as well as communities (Laudon Traver, 2015). For example, a good feedback and a recommendation from a reputable member belonging to an online forum or else community can probably provide high level of trust in the overall process of social commerce. Intention to Purchase As rightly put forward by Mohapatra (2013), the intention to purchase can be referred to as a construct of technology acceptance model (TAM) that can be regarded as one of the most important theories that can be used for the process of prediction of the intention of individuals to utilize the entire system. However, there are two different core concepts that can be used to examine and at the same time predict the intention of different individuals to utilize the entire information system. These two important theories include the Tam as well as the Theory of Planned Behavior (Zhang et al., 2013). However, the intention to purchase in the current study can be defined as the intention of the customer to actively engage in different online purchasing behavior in different social networking platforms. The TAM can be regarded is one of the most important concepts in e-commerce studies. Social Commerce Adoption Model: As mentioned by Turban et al., (2015), the social commerce adoption model elucidates different factors of social commerce, social commerce constructs, trust factors among many others. In addition to this, the social commerce adoption model also expounds in detail the ratings and reviews, recommendation and referrals by different members of the community and forums. This social commerce constructs therefore mainly consists of the recommendations, ratings, forums and communities and trust. The trust and the social commerce construct leads to the development of intention for purchase (Kang Johnson, 2013). Figure 1: Social Commerce Adoption Model (Source: Kang Johnson, 2013). Discussion of the Key Arguments with Supplementary Facts and Comparison of Related Theories Application of E-commerce Business Theory As rightly mentioned by Shaw et al., (2013), the applications of the social commerce applications are swiftly changing and is undergoing constant evolutions. Prior researches in the academic literature mention that customers have two distinct categories of orientations at the time of accessing different Business to Consumer sites. The behavior of the consumers can be categorized as transactional as well as social. The technology enabled shopping experience where different online consumer transaction offers the important mechanisms for the purpose of conduction of different social shopping experience. The transactional shopping experience concentrates on completion of different tasks associated to shopping whilst the social orientation concentrates on building strong association. The provision for customer reviews and at the same time personalized recommendations can be regarded as an important feature that can enhance the online shopping experience (Shaw et al., 2013). The table belo w shows the orientation of the online consumer behavior and at the same time support of the e-commerce technology: The applications of the social commerce make use of the different innovative technologies that can be categorized as social shopping website, add-on applications to different accessible social networking sites and mobile shopping websites. The transactional orientation also concentrates on completion of different shopping related tasks, whilst the social orientation concentrates on building strong association. The extension of typology of behavior of the consumers online involves categorization of online consumer behavior into three different types that the transactional, informational as well as social. As rightly mentioned by Zhang et al., (2013), transactional behavior concentrates on diverse utilitarian factors of shopping and the objective to accomplish the task in an effective manner. The empirical evidences and prior researches on marketing as well as information systems essentially mentions that convenience as well as unproblematic shopping has conventionally been the most si gnificant factor for carrying out the online shopping. However, the informational behavior concentrates on the acquirement of requisite information regarding products, services as well as trends. The objective of the current study is to remain accustomed as regards the products that might lead to instantaneous or future procurement. This type of behavior can be referred to as the goal oriented consumer information processing behavior. As rightly put forward by Zhang et al., (2013), social behavior concentrates on essentially building strong relationship and that have the inclination towards discovery of new products and at the same time development of diverse feelings such as warmth as well as satisfaction through the process of online shopping. The conventional e-commerce technology upholds the transactional and at the same time informational factors involved in online shopping, whereas the diverse applications of the social commerce essentially aims to meet social aspects involved in shopping and to potentially augment diverse informational factors (Melody.syr.edu, 2016). Critiques and Summary of the Literature The present study sheds light on different empirical evidences and academic literature on the recent progressions in information and the communication technologies in addition to emergence of the Web 2.0 technologies that have initiated new advancements in the area of e-commerce (Waset.org, 2016). The review of the existent literature on the social commerce that discusses new advances in the field of e-commerce along with the social networking sites as well as social media. The present study also critically examines the social commerce constructs that can make use of significant information, offer vital advice and at the same time contribute to experiences especially in different social platforms thereby providing a source for diverse online community support. In addition to this, the current section on the review of the literature also examines the trust factor involved in the influencing the consumers to frame their decisions to purchase. Conclusions of the Study The above mentioned study essentially examines existing theories and academic literature on existent information system. The present study elucidates and reviews in detail the academic literature on social commerce, social commerce constructs, trusts and the intention to purchases. This helps in gaining deep understanding regarding the overall social commerce adoption model and impact of the social e-commerce variables on customers shopping. The above study also helps in gaining deep understanding regarding the effect of the trust factor in the information and the communication technologies in bringing about new advancements in the area of e-commerce. From the above study it can be said that the social commerce adoption model helps in gaining an overview regarding the overall effect of different variables of the social commerce on the online buying behavior of the consumers. References Chiu, C. M., Wang, E. T., Fang, Y. H., Huang, H. Y. (2014). Understanding customers' repeat purchase intentions in B2C e?commerce: the roles of utilitarian value, hedonic value and perceived risk.Information Systems Journal,24(1), 85-114. Digital Intelligence Today. (2016).Digital Intelligence Today. Retrieved 27 October 2016, from https://digitalintelligencetoday.com Huang, Z., Benyoucef, M. (2013). From e-commerce to social commerce: A close look at design features.Electronic Commerce Research and Applications,12(4), 246-259. Hughes, S., Beukes, C. (2012). Growth and implications of social e-commerce and group buying daily deal sites: The case of Groupon and LivingSocial.The International Business Economics Research Journal (Online),11(8), 921. Kang, J. Y. M., Johnson, K. K. (2013). How does social commerce work for apparel shopping? Apparel social e-shopping with social network storefronts.Journal of Customer Behaviour,12(1), 53-72. Laudon, K., Traver, C. (2015).E-commerce 2015. Pearson Higher Ed. Li, Y. M., Wu, C. T., Lai, C. Y. (2013). A social recommender mechanism for e-commerce: Combining similarity, trust, and relationship.Decision Support Systems,55(3), 740-752. Melody.syr.edu. (2016).Melody.syr.edu. Retrieved 27 October 2016, from https://melody.syr.edu Mohapatra, S. (2013). E-commerce Strategy. InE-Commerce Strategy(pp. 155-171). Springer US. Qu, W. G., Pinsonneault, A., Tomiuk, D., Wang, S., Liu, Y. (2015). The impacts of social trust on open and closed B2B e-commerce: A Europe-based study.Information Management,52(2), 151-159. Shaw, M. J., Zhang, D., Yue, W. T. (Eds.). (2013).E-Life: Web-enabled convergence of commerce, work, and social life: 10th Workshop on E-Business, WEB 2011, Shanghai, China, December 4, 2011, Revised selected papers(Vol. 108). Springer. Turban, E., King, D., Lee, J. K., Liang, T. P., Turban, D. C. (2015). E-Commerce: Regulatory, Ethical, and Social Environments. InElectronic Commerce(pp. 689-730). Springer International Publishing. Turban, E., King, D., Lee, J. K., Liang, T. P., Turban, D. C. (2015). E-Commerce: Regulatory, Ethical, and Social Environments. InElectronic Commerce(pp. 689-730). Springer International Publishing. Wang, W. T., Wang, Y. S., Liu, E. R. (2016). The stickiness intention of group-buying websites: The integration of the commitmenttrust theory and e-commerce success model.Information Management. Waset.org (2016). Retrieved 27 October 2016, from https://waset.org/.../2123/social-commerce-e-commerce-in-social-media-context Wen, L., Ni, Y., Huang, B. (2014). Analysis of the Application of Social E-commerce Marketing. InProceedings of the 2012 2nd International Conference on Computer and Information Application (ICCIA 2012). Atlantis Press. Zhang, P., Zhou, L., Zimmermann, H. D. (2013). Advances in social commerce research: Guest editors introduction.Zhang, P., Zhou, L., Zimmermann, H.-D.(2013). Advances in social commerce research: guest editors' introduction. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications,12(4), 221-223.

Politics in Egypt

Failure of Secular Political Movements In most cases, secular political movements fail because of lack of organization and the spontaneous nature of these groups. These groups often arise spontaneously without proper organization.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Politics in Egypt specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The movements are, therefore, often not identified with a particular leader. The lack of predefined leadership agendas dents the movement’s strength as rivalries arise from the different groups constituting the movement. The movement, thus, has to handle challenges of institutionalizing their diverse interests. With time, various governance issues such as qualification of the leaders, the people to spearhead constitution making, what the constitution should entail, and scheduling of elations arise. Leadership wrangles are also dominant in absence of well defined succession plans. Despite the popula rity of the secular movements, internal rivalries are common. This was the cause of divisions in the Muslim brotherhood in the 1980s and 1990s where the group split along key personalities (Rutherford 89). Generational disparities also contribute to the failure of political movements. Internal divisions may arise due to reluctance to integrate the agendas of the different age groups, especially the young generation, into decision making organs. Conflict of interest across the generation and reluctance of leaders to give the young people the opportunity to utilize their skills can cause rivalry.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ideological differences may also come out across the generation, whereby the young generation may be willing to accommodate new concepts and ideas while the older generation of leaders is rigid. This was witnessed in the breakup of Muslim brotherhood in 1996 when the old generation of leaders refused to support the youth’s propositions of incorporating other groups into their organization (Rutherford 90). This caused the youths to split from the main organization and formed their political party, though not successful. Evolution of other organizations which are autonomous and financially well endowed threatens the political movements. This may be so when the emerging groups do not have commitment to the movement’s common goal, in spite of the groups being sympathizers of the movement. The movement, therefore, remains as an umbrella body for the different parties having divergent purposes and ideologies. The regime of the day may also impose repressive measures against the movement, often leading to disintegration of the movement. Threats, detention and imprisonment of the members of the movement often put the organizational structure of the movement into disarray, thus weakening it. The repressive measures can create leadership crises, impacting on the hold of the movement in the population. This is exemplified by the repression activities of the government in 1970s and 1980s that affected the organizational structure of the Muslim brotherhood. This reduced its influence among the different Islamic activists.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Politics in Egypt specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The government also elevated the generational differences across this group by cracking down on young members, whereas the older members who were the leaders did not respond to these sufferings (Rutherford 91). The movement may often appeal to the masses, spanning across social, religious, ideologies and all age differences. It can, therefore, be made up of people from all walks of life, including those in the economy, military, youth activists and politicians. Sectarian groups may take advantage of lack of proper leadership mechanisms an d pursue their interests once they have attained power, contributing to failure of the movement. For instance, the military may exercise too much power and attempt to exert regulations on the pace and type of change to be implemented. The military may often rule with decrees and such rule is not overseen by anybody, for example parliament or opposition. Thus, the military rules without consulting the general public on major issues (International Crisis Group 2). Common values of Islamists and Secularists Islamists and secularists share various dimensions of constitutionalism, among them being the, â€Å"rule of law, constraints on state power, protection of civil and political rights and public participation in politics† (Rutherford 101). In the rule of law, the Islamists and secularists have agreements on shar’ia as the basis of governance. Shari’a must be derived from the Qur’an or the Sunnah obtained from reliable sources.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Shari’a defines the ethical and spiritual ways that the believer must follow to live a moral life in accordance with God’s ways. Thus, every believer is obliged to follow shar’ia. Shar’ia also establishes the legal and moral principles for a spiritually enriched society. Through demonstration of the expected moral values to be adhered to, shar’ia promotes harmony and stability in the nation. The Shar’ia teachings also stipulate that to lead a spiritual life, one must meditate and interact with fellow believers and practice the teachings. It is, thus, the responsibility of the state to steer the people to have good morals by enforcing shar’ia. These topics have no contention and are not subject to discussion, thus the Islamism and secularists have an accord. Issues that are not available in the Qur’an and Sunnah require formulation of laws that are in agreement with Shari’a. These laws must be generated through governance in different political, social, cultural, and economic settings. The man-made laws are established based on fundamental pillars of Shar’ia in relation to governance. These principles include, †to establish justice, to rule through consultation (shura), to govern in a manner accountable to the citizenry, to derive laws from the Islamic Shar’ia, and to respect the people’s rights† (Rutherford 103). Governance is, therefore, aimed at employing the central pillars of Shari’a to formulate laws. The people designing these laws must consider the expectation of the community while upholding the Shar’ia principles. The laws do not contradict Shar’ia if they address the needs of the community and are geared towards addressing the interests of the citizens. In addition, the formulated laws must cater for the expectations of the community and the unique nature of the demands at that time. The laws are also formulated by building consensus c oncerning the issue at hand, in accordance to shar’ia principles and reflecting diverse knowledge and opinions. The Shar’ia, thus, allows for application of non-Muslim ideologies to handle situations in life as long as the ideologies do not contradict the shar’ia. The laws should mirror the values and sense of justice. The Islamists and secularists believe that Muslims have to reinterpret religion to correspond with issues in the contemporary world. Governance by Shar’ia is reaffirmed when the citizens and state demonstrate honest attempts to behave as pertains to Islam and not just oriented towards the particular legislative outcome. Shari’a is based on protecting, â€Å"religion, rationality, property and wealthy† (Rutherford 122). This means that it is enforced to promote justice, fairness, and compassion, and thus laws that stratify these ethical issues are compliant with shar’ia. The process of formulating laws is important in re inforcing Shar’ia. This requires careful consideration of challenges facing the Egyptians and evaluating the possible laws that can help while reflecting Shari’a principles. The role of religious leaders is secondary to drafting the law and interpreting shar’ia. In constraints of state power, exercising state power is confined under Shari’a, hence the people can ignore or even impeach a leader whose conduct and rule contradicts Shari’a. The people have the freedom of expressing allegiance to the state that is founded on Shar’ia, and which responds to the community’s will. The leader is, thus, elected by the citizens and is responsible to them. The leader as a human being can make mistakes as he is not divine, hence he should always engage his subjects on major issues. The state must also be subjected to checks and balances, hence the essence of decentralizing powers to other governance organs and empowering civil societies (Rutherford 112). In protection of civil and political rights, Islamists and secularists have common values in upholding individual rights and freedom. All the citizens have rights to, â€Å"better living standards, life, dignity, and property† (Rutherford 113). Ideal governance is based on, â€Å"consultation, justice, freedom, equality and the accountability of the ruler† (Rutherford 113). Freedom to express one’s self, to think and inquire is essential in practicing Islam faith. Islamists and secularists also believe in public participation in politics. The people are, therefore, supposed to be involved in electing their leaders. By consulting the people, the state gives the citizens a chance to participate in determining governance. Status of Shar’ia under Mubarak and Current Discussions Shari’a is the main source of legislation in Egypt, under article 2 of the constitution. This means that all the legislations must be derived from the principles of Shari ’a. In interpretation of the article, the court in 1985 ruled that the principles of shar’ia must be applied into positive state law. The Shari’a has two principles; those which are express and cannot be debated, and those which can be applied in relation to different contexts. These relative principles are subject to interpretations while adhering to Shari’a. In Mubarak’s regime, two constitutional amendments were carried out but all of them left article 2 intact. Regarding family and personal status laws, the laws were ramified in accordance to shari’a; though this ramification was not comprehensive. Family conflicts such as divorce and alimony were put together to form one case in 2004 so that they can be heard by one court. Personal status laws are enacted by the parliament. The legislation of laws was often followed by some explanations to demonstrate how the laws were adopted and backing literature to justify the legislation (ISLAMOPED IA para 1). Current discussions Having ascended to power, Muslim brotherhood is advocating for consultative governance according to Islam. Muslim brotherhood perceives public engagement in politics as essential in governance. This can be promoted by carrying out free and fair elections in order to choose leaders who demonstrate accountability. This approach is, however, not shared by some scholars who see perceive embedded problems in mass politics, such as enactment of legislation that is not established on ethical principles of Islam (ISLAMOPEDIA para 1). Instead, these scholars are of the view that the state should put organs that can maintain checks and balances, for example a constitutional court that makes sure the formulated legislative measures are in accordance to Shari’a. After the ouster of Mubarak and subsequent entry of the new regime, constitutional plans to amend the constitution were initiated. The main discussions in the amendment of the constitution gravitat ed around article 2 which invokes shar’ia as the major source of laws. People opposed to this article cite it as being biased and the article does not address those people having divergent religious views. Those against the proposals to change article 2 were concerned that changing it was likely to cause sectarian rivalry (ISLAMOPEDIA para 2). However, as the secular groups are minorities, most people are opposed to amending the article. Works Cited International Crisis Group. â€Å"Popular protest in North Africa and the Middle East (1): Egypt Victorious?† Middle East/North Africa Report No. 101. 2012. Web. ISLAMOPEDIA. Islam and the state of post Mubarak era 2012. Web. Rutherford, Bruce K. Egypt after Mubarak: Liberalism, Islam, and democracy in the Arab world. Oxford: Princeton Studies in Muslim Politics, 2012. Print. This essay on Politics in Egypt was written and submitted by user Gemma Pacheco to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Medical History essays

Medical History essays Throughout any period of time, many changes occur, especially within the medical field. In a half of a century, the preoccupations and concerns of the American physician underwent a complete transformation. Two sources are the basis for this comparison, the first written by Benjamin Rush entitled Observations of the Duties of a Physician and the other was the first Code of Ethics by the American Medical Association. As a preliminary difference between the two sources, an examination of the authors should not be overlooked. The earlier source was written by a single man, while the second was a collaborative effort by an association. Thus, the knowledge of medicine was infectiously spread throughout the ever growing population in America. Over this spread of fifty years, other key differences can be observed. One that will be discussed is the American Medical Association stressed a superior level of professionalism. Another difference within the articles was the societal class of ph ysicians. The last noticed observation was about the role the patients played. In the article written by Benjamin Rush, he suggests certain behavioral acts to help the physician blend with the rest of society. An example and one of the most crucial recommendations was to live in the country, on a farm. By following this suggestion, the physician would show no superiority to the common people. Not only would superiority be defeated, but agriculture would benefit. Medicine is primarily based off of chemistry which works directly with agriculture. Thus the physician would share his discoveries for the advancements in medicine, and promote improvements within the country. Another benefit of living on a farm that Rush described was the occupation for the off, or healthy, season. Since the medical field was not as prospered, physicians could ...

English essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

English - Essay Example ifies a loss of contact with realism, as well as an overestimation of a person’s own capabilities or competence, especially when the individual displaying it is in a position of authority or power (Moore 34). To consider whether hubris equals megalomania, it is vital to look into the traits of the two, which this paper found to be extremely similar. Individuals who suffer from these two defects have a clear self-focus in interpersonal relations. They also have a problem in sustaining gratifying relationships. Another trait of the two is that people lack emotional awareness (Moore 67). Other traits include trouble with sympathy, problems differentiating the self from others, reaction to any abuse or imagined abuse, weakness to shame instead of guilt, proud body language and obsequiousness towards individuals who affirm and admire them. People who suffer from these two defects also detest individuals who do not like them. They use other individuals without bearing in mind the cost of doing so. They pretend to be more significant than they, in reality, are. They brag (cleverly but tirelessly) and overstress their achievements, arguing to be "skilled" in a lot of things. Finally, individuals who suffer from these defects do not view or observe the world from the perception of other individuals in that they are mostly denial of gratitude and remorse (Emmons 291). Hubris and megalomania might exist in each and every individual. Critics argue that the two are a unique state from which an individual develops the love or affection object. Shelley (34) argues that healthy hubris or megalomania is a vital element of normal growth. According to Shelley (56), the affection of the parents for their children and their mind-set toward their child could be perceived as a reproduction and revival of their own hubris or megalomania. The child has a power of deliberation; the parents arouse that emotion since, in their children, they observe the things, which they have never

Reflective Writing Assignments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Reflective Writing Assignments - Essay Example However, there should be a limit to the free will since it can be disastrous at times (Campbell 9). A world without free will but with only good things happening is an incomplete world. This is because free will is an important component of life, and thus without it life can be sometimes unbearable. Conversely, a world where the presence of free will leads to occurrence of bad things is not good either. This is because people misuse the free will accorded to perform evil actions that may sometimes end up being disastrous (Campbell 13). This is because everyone perceives free will as the right to behave or do things that only pleases without considering the impact of such actions to fellow human beings. However, when comparing the two scenarios, it is better for one to live in a world without free will but has good things happening to him rather than live in a world with free will but the freedom makes him do evil things that at times prove disastrous. A world without free will is goo d since even though a person is denied the freedom of choice, he is not exposed to bad things associated with free will. For instance, a person can live without free will but he is properly treated and therefore, exposed to good things. This is because the person is only denied freedom of choice while accorded other good things of life, which might make life more bearable. This is true since at times the presence of free will exposes an individual to bad things; for instance, freedom of choice might lead a person to make wrong decisions with grave consequences (Campbell 18). Consequently, a world with free will is not good and forms a dangerous place since the freedom makes an individual perform evil actions. Thus, the free will leads to the occurrence of bad things with grave consequences. For instance, a world where each person is permitted to kill, maim, or even oppress one another is a bad place to live in since life becomes unbearable. In such world, people become revengeful an d so evil because there is no law or person dictating the free will. Therefore, since no human being prefers facing or experiencing bad things in life, it is better to live in a world with lots of good things but without free will. This is because there is more suffering in a world with free will since every person does what pleases him or her without considering the consequences of such action to other people within the surroundings (Campbell 25). For instance, in a world without freedom, an individual might decide to play booming music late in the night without considering the unnecessary noise and inconveniences caused to the sleepy neighbors. In a retaliatory attack, the neighbors might decide to attack and severely beat him since there is no law restricting them from doing such an action. From the two scenarios, it is clear that although free will is important in the world, too much of it is so dangerous since it can lead to the occurrence of bad things. Due to such scenarios, it is better to live in a world where freedom is restricted to avoid occurrence of bad things attributed to the free will. At least such a world will have minimal records of bad things occurring and this will make life at least bearable and enjoyable. (634 words) Q2. Is it okay to spend one being in order to save one thousand human beings? Is it okay to assassinate one human being in order to save one thousand human beings? Is it okay to draw up a battle plan that deliberately costs the lives of

Underrepresentation Of Women In Science And Engineering

Underrepresentation Of Women In Science And Engineering Women run the risk of lagging behind in the fields of science and engineering. A wide gap exists between men and women in these fields. Women tend to have overrepresentation in social sciences and humanities, and underrepresentation in science and engineering. Although the number of women in the fields has grown steadily, women remain underrepresented at high levels of these professions. Social norms, culture and attitudes, play a significant role in undermining the role of women in the aforementioned fields. In many cases, the achievement and excellence of women are measured using male oriented standards. Even for those that excel, their salaries are in many cases dissimilar with their male counterparts. However, countries can use several recommendations that can help boost the presence of women in these fields. Inclusion of women in science and engineering is a crucial factor that can significantly accelerate technological advancement in the contemporary society. Discussion Underrepresentation of Women in Science and Engineering There is a marked underrepresentation of women in science and engineering although the contemporary society needs technology most society. Science and engineering are historically According to statistics revealed by Blasdell (19); over 50 percent of the population is composed of women of whom 44 percent is in the workforce but only 13 percent in science and engineering. Recruitment of women in science and technology can help mitigate the drain of engineering talent through the provision significant resources. However, several barriers impede this inclusion and / or advancement of women in science and engineering. Challenges and Reasons for Underrepresentation Social norms and culture come as the most significant factors impeding the advancement of women male dominated professions. Traditions, values and styles lean and suit the male gender has shaped the culture in SET fields. The culture is not suited for the needs of women in social and learning environments. From time immemorial, women are regarded as caretakers where their work is fundamentally taking care of their families. This social norm leads to a stereotypical view on women where many men regard the abilities of women in these fields negatively. As documented by Bystydzienski (24), many men respond negatively on the capability of women to excel in technical (science) and engineering fields. The societal norms dictate that a woman cannot be successful as a mother and a wife while in these career paths. According to the International Labor Organization, science and engineering are associated with pervasive gender roles that encourage women to engage in soft subjects (hawks and Joa n 250). This undermines the excellence of women in the aforementioned fields. Additionally, women who take SET careers are associated with a loss of femininity in their societies (Hall 82). This impedes their development in the fields since they may feel that their intuitive and imaginative styles do not fit to scientific research. Female stereotyping also is a key element among social norms that impede the accomplishments of women in SET. Women scientists are usually featured as atypical women and atypical scientists. This implies that, not only is their deficiency in science attacked, but also their gender identity. Female norms are more associated with collaboration than competition. However, the societal norms set by men are more competitive than they are collaborative. However, women are oriented towards win-win settings (Bystydzienski 39). The competitiveness and desire to prove oneself significantly impedes the desire of women to advance in these career fields. Legal systems to a lesser extent than norms affect womens excellence in science and engineering. In several countries, anti-discriminatory laws require that universities offer differential entry conditions for women. However, the weakness of the legal systems in several other countries (especially developing ones) has left women at a disadvantage in the inclusion of science and engineering programs. Legal trends encourage institutions to alleviate discrimination and other institutional norms and practices that bar women from engaging in SET courses. However, with high levels of female stereotyping in different societies, women still lag behind in their advancement, in these fields (Steel and Emily 91). Female Dominant Science Fields Although few women re found in the engineering field, there are other science fields where there is a sizable number. Nursing is one of the most prominent science professions where women are found. Nursing, as a science, attracts a significant number of female students. Additionally, this field has also been stereotyped, and it is more associated with women than with men. One factor that leads to a high number of female nurses is the negative attitude that a man will look unmanly if he joins the course. Hawks and Joan (257) add that women are capable of interacting better with other people than men are. This implies that women can interact with patients more efficiently in hospitals than men can. Additionally, nursing combines feminine values with professional values of support and care. Furthermore, women are at an added advantage of taking nursing courses since in many cases, men are excluded. Academic Achievement of Women in SET The academic achievement of women in science and engineering remains low. The achievement of women in the fields falters especially immediately after the entry in the first year in universities. According to Hall (102), of the 40 percent of the students who entered university in 2010 in USA, 11 percent were female. Once they join institutions of higher learning, their performance may also deteriorate significantly. Lack of confidence in their capability to balance family responsibilities and science career significantly influences their academic achievements in the fields. Additionally, the portrayal of science and engineering male-oriented courses exacerbate their fears of their excellence. Additionally, in undergraduate science and engineering classes, women in many cases feel isolated. They also feel resented by their male counterparts since they think that their opinions are not respected by their male counterparts. Furthermore, women who have high levels of confidence in science and technology classrooms elicit negative responses from their male counterparts. According to sociologists, women also express lower levels of self-esteem than men in these fields do. The combination of these effects affects the academic achievement of women negatively. Many women will tend to mask their academic abilities to evade alienation and ensure that they achieve social success. Hawks and Joan (108) add that women win acceptance through the loss of personal terms. As he observes, women who achieve highly in these fields are likely to lose their gender roles. To avoid this, women recede to standard gender roles. In such a situation, women do not ask many questions or explore alternative option, but rather, they pursue and follow what they are taught. This significantly affects their academic achievement and thy end up lagging behind their male counterparts. To exacerbate the situation, even with their assumption of standard gender roles, the presence of women in a science o r engineering class draws a lot of attention (Steel and Emily 125). This inundation with social attention creates uncomfortable learning environment that may interfere with their academic achievement and/or progress. In America, women currently earn approximately 41 percent of PhDs in SET fields but make approximately 28 percent of the workforce in these fields. As observed by Nut, the low number of women involved in the workforce is because of high dropout rate in SET field. Decreasing the dropout rate of women in SET careers is significantly essential in the pursuit for gender equality since women in SET jobs earn approximately 35 percent more than in non-SET fields (Blaisdell 24). Cross-gender Disparity in Salaries Albeit the fight for equality in all fields of life, there still exists a wide disparity between the salaries of male and women workers. In the fields of science and engineering, this disparity is highly pronounced. Data collected through the census in the United States depict a significant dissimilarity between the workers in these fields. In 1999, the average salary for female scientists and engineers was almost 22 percent less than that of their male counterparts. However, this was regarded as a significant increase since this reflected a 25 percent increase from the figures posted in 1993. In 1999, among scientists and engineers who had held their degrees for less than 5 years, women earned 83 percent of what men earned. Salary differential at this time depended on the field. In life sciences, women earned 23 percent lesser than their male counterparts while in, computer science, the difference was 12 percent. However, the difference has reduced over the years. In 2009, independe nt surveys by Glassdoor revealed that women earned approximately 93.7 percent of what men earned. This applied for those who had zero to three years of experience. For scientists and engineers who had more than ten years of experience, women earned approximately 89.1 percent of what men earned. Another survey conducted in 2012 reveals that the gap is steadily being close, albeit at a significantly slow pace. Women scientists and engineers with zero to three years of experienced earned 95.2 percent of what their male counterparts earned. For those with over ten years of experience, women earned 92.6 percent of what men earned. Albeit the underrepresentation, it is evident that the salary gap is being closed. Factors such as emphasis on equality between men and women play a noteworthy role in changing these dynamics. Additionally, stereotyping and discrimination are diminishing, and these fields are now more cross-gender than they used to be several decades ago (Hall 124-130). Cross-cultural Differences in Status of Women in SET The status of women in science is in many cases vary from culture to culture. This is because the norms observed by one culture may be different from those of another culture. Studies conducted by Blaisdell (29) indicate a wide disparity in the way different cultures uphold women in science and engineering. These differences are more pronounced in societies that have stuck to their traditions than in the modernized societies. Among the African Americans and other black societies, gender roles are highly emphasized. This implies that women are expected to take care of their families while their male counterparts act as breadwinners. On this note, women need to maintain their femininity in these societies. In these societies, a career in science and engineering is highly associated with a loss of femininity. In this regard, women are regarded negatively in these societies once they take to science and engineering. This cultural stereotyping has significantly contributed to a few black women getting involved in science and technology. Through women empowerment, the number of women taking careers in science and technology in several other cultures or societies has increased. Western cultures are becoming more liberal and, thus, more women are being accepted into these male dominated careers. This increase can be attributed to less strict cultural norms, constitutions promoting equity and discouraging discrimination and government strategies promoting inclusion of women. According to statistics posted by the United Nations (quoted in Blaidell 30), the Asian communities (especially in the United States) have the highest number of women scientists and engineers. Among the Asian communities, SET (science, engineering and technology) courses are considered part of the community. Although their culture also emphasizes on gender roles on women, they show significant liberalism regarding women engaging in science and technology. The above observation indicates that, in soc ieties where cultural norms, discrimination and stereotyping are high, number of women entering into the field of science and engineering is less and vice versa. Opportunities for Women in SET Regardless of the challenges, women engaging in SET fields have a multiplicity of opportunities. In the United States, the government has increased its effort in having women included in Set programs. Through affirmative actions, the entry standards for women into university in SET fields are lower than for men. This is encouraging an additional number of women engage in science and engineering. Additionally, other governmental and non-governmental research centers are including more women than it was a few years ago. Additionally, these institutes engage in campaigns and trainings to raise the number of women in science and engineering. For example, through the Executive Office of the President, NASA was involved in a national convention to encourage girls and women to engage in SET. Through their presence, girls had hands-on experience on NASA activities to inspire them in pursuing SET careers (Steel and Emily 200). Recommendations Based on the challenges facing women in SET, a lot remains undone. Several recommendations can help increase the presence of women in SET. First, the culture and social norms should be redefined to have an increased number of women in SET. As noted by Bystydzienski (209), women need first to adjust to the system with the system in which they have modest prior knowledge. In this regard, women need to develop coping strategies to have high representation in this field. Additionally, the cultural and social norms of the modern societies should change. Stereotyping and discrimination at entry level in universities are some of the most significant challenges for women wishing to engage in SET courses. With government strategies, discrimination and stereotyping can be reduced thus increasing the number of women in SET. Furthermore, a change in the competitiveness in SET can help increase the number of women. According to Blaisdell (21), dissatisfaction and intimidation arise among women wh en faced by competitiveness at work. To mitigate this problem, group activities and non-threatening environments should be encouraged. Additionally, standards for assessment should be reduced to help women feel integrated. Furthermore, connected teaching can help integrate women in science and engineering. In connected classes, truth is constructed through consensus, but not conflict. This helps reduce intimidation among women. Conclusion Inclusion of women in science and engineering can help in the growth of innovation. However, women are significantly underrepresented in SET fields. Social norms and some oppressive legal systems have been found to contribute to this underrepresentation. Even for women who advance in these careers, a marked disparity exists between their salaries and those of their female counterparts. However, women, through government efforts, have a multiplicity of opportunities in advancing in these fields. As identified, several strategies can be used to allay the challenges women face in SET fields. The inclusion of women in SET fields is crucial for growth of innovation thus additional women should be encouraged to join SET courses.